## The problem

This post will dive into the topic of sampling of non-uniform random numbers. The problem statement is: given a uniform random generator, sample non-uniform random values.

The following subsections will introduce some of the basic methods of non-uniform random sampling, which are also used by the Tinflex algorithm implemented in Mir.

## The inversion method

The underlying idea of non-uniform random sampling is that given an inverse function $F^{-1}$ for the cumulative density function (CDF) of a target density $f(x)$, random values can be mapped to a distribution.

More visually one can imagine this with the histogram and cumulative histogram of a random distribution:

To sample a variable distributed according to the exponential distribution, a point $y$ on the CDF graph can be sampled and then using the inverse function its matching value $x$ can be obtained, e.g. if $0.4$ is sampled (first brown line) the inverse yields $f^{-1}(0.4) = -log(1 - 0.4) = 0.51$, for $0.6$ (yellow) it is $0.91$ and for $0.9$ (last brown line) it is $2.30$, respectively.

Hence, given $F^{-1}$, values from the density can be sampled by using the given uniform random generator of the interval $[0, 1]$. For example, for the sampling procedure for the exponential distribution is:

import std.math : log;
import std.random : rndGen, uniform;

S sample(S, RNG, FInv)(ref RNG gen, FInv finv)
{
S u = uniform!("[]", S)(0, 1);
return finv(u);
}

auto fInvExp = (S x) => -log(S(1) - x);
sample!double(rndGen, fInvExp)


However there are two big problems of the inversion method: (1) for most densities the inverse CDF is not known or can’t be determined or (2) if it can be determined it’s usually very computationally expensive function (e.g. an iterative numeric approximation needs to be used if no exact form can be found).

## Play yourself

All code listed in this blog post is available online and can be conveniently executed:

wget https://raw.githubusercontent.com/wilzbach/flex-paper/master/samplers/inverse_expo.d
dub inverse_expo.d


The plots above were generated with the inverse_expo.d snippet, so give it a try and play with them.

## The rejection method

A very popular alternative is the rejection method - often known as acceptance-rejection sampling. It only requires one to know the density function of a distribution. The general idea is that if a random variable $(x, y)$ is distributed within the density $f$, then it has the density $f$ (blue curve in Figure 2).

This means $x$ and $y$ can be uniformly sampled within an area that is strictly larger than $f$ and check whether the generated point is in the area covered by the density function. If it’s within the area the point is accepted (black in Figure 2), otherwise it is rejected (brown in Figure 2) and new points are sampled until a point, which is within the area and thus can be accepted, is drawn.

More formally, a hat function $h(x)$ that majorizes the density function $f(x)$ is needed. In other words $\forall x \in [l, r]: f(x) < h(x)$, where $l$ and $r$ are the left and right boundaries of an interval. The hat function (green in Figure 2) is the boundary function for our target density sampling. In this simple example the hat function is the green, horizontal line $x = 1$.

It is important to see that for every point $x$, it needs to be evaluated whether $x$ is within the density area $f(x)$. As $h(x)$ is by definition always larger than $f(x)$ the formula $y \cdot h(x) \leq f(x)$ can be used to programmatically check whether a generated point is within the target density as it covers the entire density of $f(x)$ (as $f(x) \in [0, 1]\ \forall x \in [\ell, r],\ y \in [0, 1]$)

Thus the basic rejection method is:

import std.random : rndGen, uniform;
import std.math : PI, sin;
alias T = double;

S sample(RNG, Pdf, Hat, S)(ref RNG gen, Pdf pdf, Hat hat, S left, S right)
{
for (;;)
{
// generate x with density proportional to hat(x)
S x = uniform!("[]", S)(left, right, gen);

// generate "vertical" variable y to evaluate x
S y = uniform!("[]", S)(0, 1, gen);

// check whether the sampled point is within the density
if (y * hat(x) <= pdf(x))
return x;
}
}
auto pdf = (T) => sin(x);
auto hat = (T x) => 1;
sample(rndGen, pdf, hat, T(0.0), PI);


Furthermore the performance of this method depends heavily on the ratio of $f(x) / h(x) = \alpha$, where $1 / \alpha$ is the average number of needed iterations to sample one value.

## Rejection with inversion

With just a straight line as upper bound a high percentage of the sampled points fall in uncovered areas and thus need to be sampled again. Therefore a more generic hat function is necessary. If the inverse of the hat function is known, the inversion method can be used to sample from an arbitrary hat function using its inverse of the cumulative density function within the interval boundaries. For example for $h(x) = 1$ the integral is trivially $H(x) = x$ and thus the cumulative density in the interval $[0, \pi]$ is $H_{CDF}(x) = \frac{1}{\pi} x$ (the highest value of $h(x)$ needs to yield 1). Hence the inverse is $H_{CDF}^{-1} = \pi x$ and the sampling procedure can be generalized:

import std.math : PI, sin;
import std.random : rndGen, uniform;
alias T = double;

S sample(S, RNG, Pdf, Hat, HatInv)(ref RNG gen, Pdf pdf, Hat hat,
HatInv hatInvCDF)
{
for (;;)
{
// generate x with density proportional to hat(x) by inversing u
S u = uniform!("[]", S)(0, 1, gen);
S x = hatInvCDF(u);

// generate "vertical" variable y to evaluate x
S y = uniform!("[]", S)(0, 1, gen);

// check whether the sampled point is within the density
if (y * hat(x) <= pdf(x))
return x;
}
}
auto pdf = (T x) => sin(x);
auto hat = (T x) => 1;
auto hatInvCDF = (T u) => u * PI;
sample!T(rndGen, pdf, hat, hatInvCDF);


The Tinflex algorithm, which will be explained in a later post, can automatically construct a hat function for any differentiable density function.

## Squeeze functions

Calculating the probability density function is often expensive, thus defining a lower bound that can be evaluated much faster yields a performance boost. This lower bound is called $s(x)$ which is majorized by $f(x)$, i.e. $s(x) \leq f(x) \ \forall x \in [l, r]$. For the previous example the squeeze function is $1 - |1 - 2x / \pi |$. If $x$ is below the squeeze function, it can be accepted without the need to calculate the density function as by definition every point in the squeeze function $s(x)$ is also below $f(x)$.

Furthermore, the sample routine can be adapted:

import std.math : abs, PI, sin;
import std.random : rndGen, uniform;
alias T = double;

S sample(S, RNG, Pdf, Hat, HatInv, Squeeze)(ref RNG gen, Pdf pdf, Hat hat,
HatInv hatInvCDF, Squeeze sq)
{
import std.random : uniform;
for (;;)
{
// generate x with density proportional to hat(x) by inversing u
S u = uniform!("[]", S)(0, 1, gen);
S x = hatInvCDF(u);

// generate "vertical" variable y to evaluate x
S y = uniform!("[]", S)(0, 1, gen);
S t = y * hat(x);

// check whether the sampled point is below the squeeze
if (t <= sq(x))
return x;

// check whether the sampled point is within the density
if (y * hat(x) <= pdf(x))
return x;
}
}

auto pdf = (T) => sin(x);
auto hat = (T x) => 1;
auto hatInvCDF = (T u) => u * PI;
auto sq = (T x) => 1 - abs(1 - 2 * x / PI);
sample!S(rndGen, pdf, hat, hatInvCDF, sq);


## Composition

A density function might be split into multiple parts with each having it’s own hat and squeeze. Given multiple densities, one can sample from the overall density by picking from each sampler according to a given probability $p_i$ which is defined by their hat area. The following figure shows a distribution that is composed out of multiple hat and squeeze parts:

A simple example of composing distributions is illustrated below. The density function is composed out of an exponential distribution (left) and a uniform distribution (right) and features a gap in the middle.


import std.random: Mt19937, uniform, rndGen;
alias T = double;

S sample(S, RNG, Sampler)(ref RNG gen, Sampler[] samplers, S[] probs)
{
import mir.random.discrete : discrete;
// pick a sampler with prob_i
auto ds = discrete(probs);
// sample with the chosen sampler
return samplers[ds(gen)](gen);
}

// for simplicity we setup only two different samplers
alias Sampler = T delegate(ref typeof(rndGen) gen);
S[] probs = [0.7, 0.3];
Sampler[] samplers = new Sampler[probs.length];

// a part of the exponential distribution on the left
samplers[0] = (ref typeof (gen) gen) {
import std.math : log;
auto finv = (S x) => -log(S(1) - x);
S u = uniform!("[]", S)(0, 0.8);
return finv(u);
};

// a uniform sampler on the right half
samplers[1] = (ref typeof (gen) gen) {
return uniform!("[]", S)(2, 3, gen);
};

sample!T(gen, samplers, probs);


Drawing a value from a discrete distribution can be done in $\mathcal{O}(1)$ with the mir.random.discrete package, which implements the Alias method.

The result of our basic composition with different target probabilities for the samples can be seen in the diagrams below. The Tinflex algorithm will automatically generate intervals with hat and squeeze function for the desired distribution that are connected with such a composition sampler.

## Where to go from here

All example snippets are available online and can be run directly with dub - the D package manager. In the next post the Tinflex algorithm will be explained, The Tinflex algorithm automatically splits a differentiable random density function into intervals and constructs hat and squeeze function for each interval.